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セミナー報告

  1. CEREBELLUM AND THE NEURAL SUBSTRATES OF ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING
    Vlastislav Bracha (Barrow Neurological Institute, Phoenix, AZ)

(2000.4.4)

    Classical conditioning of the eyeblink response in the rabbit is one of the best understood models of learning and memory. The presentation will focus on the current advances in understanding the role of intermediate cerebellum-related circuits in learning and performing anticipatory protective responses. The data will illustrate our approach which combines research in two animal models and in human subjects. The objective of this approach is to examine the functionality of the involved circuits in animal models and then to examine the applicability of the acquired knowledge to humans.
    The first part of the presentation will demonstrate that classical conditioning of the eyeblink response in the rabbit is under the control of intermediate cerebellum - related neural circuits. An emphasis will be made on current strategies used to elucidate the location of plastic changes which underlie this form of learning.
    The second part of the presentation will show that the circuits described in the rabbit eyeblink conditioning model are multi-functional. They are involved in the control of anticipatory protective responses in multiple effector systems (eyelids, forelimb and hindlimb) in several mammalian species (rabbit, cat and human). Moreover, these circuits seem to also be involved in other forms of learning, for instance instrumental conditioning.
    The third part of the presentation will summarize our human studies which confirm that the core of the knowledge acquired using animal models closely corresponds to the cerebellum's function in humans. These studies, which employed unique experimental paradigms, were performed in normal human subjects and in patients with lesions re- stricted to the cerebellum. The presented data will demon- strate that similar to the rabbit model, the acquisition, retention and extinction of classically conditioned eyeblinks in humans are cerebellum dependent.

(担当:森 茂美)

  1. How Muscle Works: Determining the Interaction of Myosin and Actin from Electron Cryo-microscopy
     Rasmus R. Schroeder (Senior Researcher, Max-Planck-Institute of Medical Research,
    Heidelberg, Germany)

(2000.4.5)

    In recent years large steps forward to the understanding of muscle contraction- which is understood on the molecular level as the interaction of the two protein players myosin and actin-have been done. For both proteins the X-ray structures are available, in the case of the motor protein myosin a number of structures at different nucleotide states have also been determined. Electron cryo-microscopy provides now the means to determine the interaction of myosin with actin: Reconstructions from frozen hydrated samples of actin filaments decorated with myosin headsubfragment S1 are used to dock the known molecular structures. By doing this one obtains a molecular model of the interaction complex. Using energy filtering electron microscopy, advanced image recording, and a new single particle image processing schemes for helical objects is now possible to achieve a resolution better than 20Å for the acto-myosin complex. At this resolution first conformational changes of myosin between the monomeric X-ray structure and the docked interaction model are found. This movement appears to account for the kinetically determined difference between "weak" and"strong" binding.

(担当:永山國昭)

  1. Dendritic signaling pathways involved in cerebellar long-term synaptic depression
     George J. Augustine (Duke University Medical Center)

(2000.4.18)

 G. Augustine博士は現代のシナプス伝達研究の指導的研究者の一人である。今回は,小脳運動学習に関与すると考えられているプルキンエ細胞シナプス伝達の長期抑圧のメカニズムについて最新の知見を紹介していただいた。

(担当:河西春郎)

  1. Repolarization-induced inhibition of Ca2+-induced Ca2+ release in skeletal myotubes
     須田 憲男(慈恵会医科大学生理学第2)

(2000.4.27)

 哺乳類骨格筋細胞では,形質膜が適当な強さで一定時間以上脱分極されていますと,高濃度カフェイン投与によってCa2+によるCa2+遊離機構を介して筋小胞体からのCa2+放出を増強させても,引き続く再分極によりCa2+放出が瞬時にしかも全面的に停止します(RISC現象; PNAS 91, 5725-5729, 1994)。RISC (repolarization- induced stop of caffeine-induced Ca2+release) を単純に解釈しますと,カフェインにより開口したリアノジン受容体(RyR)チャネルがジヒドロピリジン受容体(電位センサ?)の支配下にあり,再分極により強制的に閉鎖されるということになります。再分極によってカフェインによるCa2+放出が実際に抑制されるのかどうかをさらに検討するため,マウス培養骨格筋細胞にホールセルパッチクランプ法および蛍光色素による細胞内Ca濃度([Ca2+]i )測定法を同時適用し,脱分極パルス終了直後に初めて5-20mMのカフェインを投与してみました。しかし再分極後10秒近くにわたりCa2+放出は起こらず,その効果は投与時の[Ca2+]iレベルに無関係でした。これとは対照的に,脱分極パルス終了直後でも形質膜の脱分極によりCa2+放出は起こり,脱分極中および静止期には同濃度のカフェイン投与によりCa2+放出が誘起されました。以上の結果から,再分極直後に確かにCa2+によるCa2+遊離に対し何らかの抑制が働いていることが示唆されます。

(担当:井本敬二)

  1. 神経栄養因子・サイトカインによる抑制性神経細胞の発達,機能制御
     那波 宏之(新潟大学 脳研究所)

(2000.4.28)

 脳神経系は,その特異的シナプス連絡網が完成した後でも,それだけで機能するものではない。実質的な脳機能獲得には正しい神経刺激のもとでのシナプスの成熟が必要だとされている。最近の研究によると,このシナプス成熟過程において神経栄養性因子や細胞増殖因子といった多くの細胞間生理活性因子が重要な役割を果たしていることが判明している。これまで我々は,いくつかの神経栄養性因子・分化因子が,脳神経細胞の神経伝達物質の合成を制御していることを明らかにしてきたが,最近,神経伝達物質の受容体や,その他のシナプス機能修飾分子の発現をも調節しうることを発見した。なかでもニューロトロフィンやEGFファミリーに代表されるタンパク因子は,前脳の抑制性神経細胞における神経伝達物質やその受容体の発現をダイナミックに調節し得る。実際,生理学的計測においてもこれらの現象が再現された。これらの結果を踏まえて,脳内サイトカインが果すシナプス発達可塑性における役割についても議論を深めたい。

(担当:河西春郎)

  1. The Cognitive Neuroscience of Action
     西谷 信之(国立身体障害者リハビリテーションセンター研究所・
    感覚機能系障害研究部感覚認知障害研究室)

(2000.5.31)

 視聴覚・体性感覚等の感覚情報と,それに基づく何らかの応答出力との一連の脳神経機構,すなわち感覚運動連関に関して,これまで霊長類を中心に多くの研究が行われ,卓越した知見が得られてきた。視覚入力と運動出力間の視覚運動統合(Visuomotor Integration)における中枢機構についても,サルにおいて頭頂間溝(Intraparietal Sulcus)や前頭眼野の機能解明が行われてきた [1, 2, 3]。また,何らかの動作を求められた時,例えそれが単純な動作であっても,一人で行うよりも他人の同様の動作を見て行う方が容易であるということを,日常よく経験する。この動作の認知に関しての研究では,サルの左F5野がその中枢であることが解明され,Mirror Neuron Systemとして提唱されている [4, 5]。一方では,ヒトにおいても近年の技術進歩により非侵襲的にその脳機能が急速に解明されつつある。とりわけ時間的・空間的分解能に優れた脳磁場計測装置により,これまでにない多くの新たな知見が明らかにされつつある。そこで全頭型脳磁場計測装置を用いて,健常成人において視覚運動統合ならびに動作の認知に関する脳機構を明らかにしたので,それを供覧する [6, 7]。特に後者に関しては,言語機能との関連についても言及する。

1)
Van Essen, DC., Maunsell, JH. & Bixby JL. (1981) J. Comp. Neurol. 199: 293-326.
2)
Sakata, H., Taira, M., Murata, A. & Mine, S. (1995) Cereb. Cortex 5: 429-438.
3)
Gottlieb, JP., Bruce, CJ. & MacAvoy, MG. (1993) J. Neurophysiol. 69: 786-799.
4)
Rizzolatti, G., Camarda, R., Fogassi, L., Gentilucci, M., Luppino, G. & Matelli, M. (1988) Exp. Brain Res. 71: 491-507.
5)
Rizzolatti, G. & Arbib, MA. (1998) Trends Neurosci. 21: 188-194.
6)
Nishitani, N., Uutela, K., Shibasaki, H. & Hari, R. (1999) J. Neurosci.19: 2647-2657.
7)
Nishitani, N. & Hari, R. (2000) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 97: 913-918.

(担当:柿木隆介)

  1. Recent observations on modulation of transmission in spinal neuronal networks.
     Elzbieta Jankowska (Department of Physiology and Pharmacology,
    Göteborg University, Sweden.)

(2000.6.19)

    Effects of neurones that modulate activity of spinal neuronal networks appear to depend to a great extent on properties of their target neurones. This is at least the case of 5-HT and NA releasing descending tract neurones and GABAergic interneurones in the cat, the former acting either pre- or post-synaptically and the latter mediating presynaptic inhibition, Our recent studies revealed considerable differences in modulatory actions at the level of the 1st order relay neurons in pathways from muscle spindle and tendon organ afferents:qualitative (facilitatory or depressive) as well as quantitative. However, in the so far investigated networks modulatory actions exerted at different sites are integrated to assure the best operation of these networks. The disintegration of the 5-HT, NA or GABA modulatory actions may accordingly explain some of the motor deficits; their replacement could provide means for the treatment.

(担当:森 茂美)

  1. 小脳の抑制性神経結合とシナプス伝達
     根東 覚(生物学研究所 大脳神経回路論)

(2000.7.27)
(担当:籾山俊彦)

  1. 延髄孤束核ネットワーク内シナプス伝達のATP受容体による制御
     加藤 総夫(東京慈恵会医科大学薬理2神経機能研究グループ)

(2000.8.25)

 延髄孤束核(NTS)ならびに孤束複合体は,生体内環境に関する神経性および液性の一次情報を受容し,内因性ネットワークによって修飾した後,呼吸・循環・消化などの自律機能ネットワークへ出力する自律情報中継核である。低酸素・脳虚血などの病的状態に対する生体の自律応答の多くは細胞外プリンとその受容体を介して発現するが,NTSには各種プリン受容体タンパク,同mRNA,取込み・不活性化タンパク群が高密度に発現しており,細胞外プリンを介した自律応答において中心的役割を担うと予想される。
 NTSネットワーク内情報処理におけるプリン受容体の意義を検討するため,脳幹スライス標本で,機能・形態的に同定された孤束複合体ニューロンから興奮性および抑制性シナプス後電流を記録し,ATP受容体および関連受容体活性化の影響を検討した。その結果,(1)入力ゲイン制御,(2)内因性tonus維持,および,(3)他神経構造への出力形成の三相を,シナプス前後に発現するATPおよびアデノシン受容体群がそれぞれ特異的に制御する事実を見い出した。これらの制御には,シナプス近傍におけるATPからアデノシンへのダイナミックな変換や,シナプス前P2X受容体による直接的グルタミン酸放出などのさまざまな分子機構が関与しており,これらをめぐる新知見について紹介する。

(担当:籾山俊彦)

  1. 一分子生理学
     木下 一彦 (慶応義塾大学理工学部)

(2000.8.28)

 今や,たんぱく質ないしRNAでできた分子機械1個1個が働く様子を,光学顕微鏡の下で目の当たりにすることができる。さらに,分子内の構造変化も,機能しているその場での連続観察が可能になりつつある。分子1個を観察し操作することにより分子機械の働きの仕掛けを探る,「一分子生理学」が誕生しつつある。我々も,「一分子を見て初めて分かった」といえる成果によりこの学問の立ち上げに寄与してきたので,ビデオを中心に紹介したい。
 ATP合成酵素の一部であるF1-ATPaseが,たった一分子で働く回転モーターであることを,顕微鏡観察により直接示すことができた。このモーターは120度おきに回るステッパーモーターであり,ATP分解の化学エネルギーから力学的仕事へのエネルギー変換効率は実に100%近くに達することが分かった。120度の回転(構造変化)の間,角度によらず駆動力(トルク)がほぼ一定であることも示せた。たんぱく質分子の出す力の詳細が明らかになった初めての例といえよう。このモーターの特性は電気モーターと多くの点で類似しており,回転機構も本質的に共通な部分があるのではないかと推定している。光ピンセットを使い,分子の紐(アクチン線維ないし一本のDNA)に結び目を作ることができた。両端を引っ張ることにより,紐の曲がりを自在に制御できる。アクチンは,曲がることにより簡単に切れてしまった。いっぽうDNAは丈夫で,細胞突起を縛るなどミクロの手術糸として使える可能性がある。磁気ピンセットによる操作も可能で,現在,F1-ATPaseを逆回転させてATPを合成することを試みている。成功すれば,「力学的操作による化学合成」を初めて成し遂げたことになる。

(担当:永山國昭)

  1. 脳の活動を司るGABA作動性神経細胞:その仕組みを発生から探る
     玉巻 伸章(京都大学大学院医学研究科高次脳形態学)

(2000.8.28)

 大脳皮質神経細胞の内10%はGABA作動性神経細胞だと考えられている。GABAの他の細胞に対する抑制は強く,他のGABA作動性神経細胞の活動をも調節している。内側中隔核内GABA作動性神経細胞は,海馬内に存在するバスケット,シャンデリア細胞(GABA作動性)に選択的に投射し,中隔細胞が活動すれば,海馬錐体細胞にdisinhibitionを起こす。二重否定は肯定より強く,錐体細胞はburst firingを起こす。この様な投射するGABA作動性神経細胞は,シナプス可塑性,オシレーションの同期,逆位相での活動,大脳皮質の活動レベルの調節などに関与している可能性がある。
    投射するGABA作動性神経細胞の存在,分布様式,結合様式の研究を,脳全体で網羅的に行うには,GABA作動性神経細胞の発生と形態形成を調べることが近道と考えられる。現在,大脳皮質のGABA作動性神経細胞の多くは,大脳基底核原基より生じて接線方向への細胞移動により供給されると考えられているが,移動の際に軸索を引きずるGABA作動性神経細胞があり,これが投射するGABA作動性神経細胞になる可能性が考えられる。また,接線方向に軸索を引きずりつつ移動する神経細胞は,新皮質の脳質帯からも生じることが分かっている。現在,本当に新皮質脳質帯から生じるGABA作動性神経細胞は無いのか,新皮質の脳質帯から生じ接線方向に軸索を引きずりつつ移動する神経細胞はどの様な神経細胞になるのかの点を明らかにする目的で,研究を進めている。その研究の一環として,脳質帯からGFP-Adenovirusを感染させることにより,radial cell migrationとtangential cell migrationの違いを観察した。その結果,両者はその移動のメカニズムで全く異なる現象で,特にradial cell migrationの実態は神経科学の教科書に書かれたものとも異なることが明らかになった。

(担当:小幡邦彦)

  1. 伝達物質放出を制御する神経終末蛋白質の働き
     持田 澄子 (東京医科大学 第一生理)

(2000.8.29)

 神経終末への活動電位の到達に伴って膜電位依存性Ca2+チャネルからCa2+が流入するとシナプス小胞膜と神経終末膜の融合が起り,小胞内に蓄えられた化学伝達物質が速やかにシナプス間隙に放出される。神経終末内には,複合体を形成して小胞の動態を制御するいくつかの蛋白質が見つかっている。N型・P/Q型Ca2+チャネルのα1サブユニットは膜融合に必須なSNARE複合体を介してシナプス小胞に結合し,Ca2+シグナルを素早くシナプス小胞に伝える。Ca2+との結合部位であるC2ドメインを有する蛋白質は,Ca2+シグナルをシナプス小胞に伝える鍵蛋白して機能しており,高濃度のCa2+に依存してSNARE蛋白質に結合するsynaptotagminは小胞膜と終末膜の融合を駆動し,Doc2のMunc13への結合は小胞のactive zoneへの移送を駆動すると思われる。さらに,SNARE蛋白質,SNARE複合体との結合を介してsyntaphilinやsnapinは,シナプス伝達を修飾する。

(担当:岡田泰伸)

  1. Na+/H+ exchangerの分子生理学:分子機能から細胞機能へ
     若林 繁夫 (国立循環器病センター研究所)

(2000.8.29)

 容積調節・増殖・分化・収縮・分泌などのさまざまな細胞機能は,H+,Na+,Ca2+などのイオンバランスの微妙な制御の上に成り立っているといっても過言ではない。その意味で,イオン代謝にあずかるタンパク質の機能を分子レベルで理解することは,統合細胞機能の理解に不可欠である。さて,多くのトランスポータやチャンネルはタンパク質分子内に内蔵された種々のセンサーを通じて外界の情報を受容し,応答・適応する能力を持つと考えられる。たとえば,Na+/H+交換輸送体(NHE)はその分子内に内蔵されると考えられる細胞内pH・容積センサーによってさまざまなホルモン・増殖因子・pH変化・細胞容積変化を受容し,活性変化を通じて細胞内pHや細胞容積を生理的に至適な範囲に維持する働きを持つ。私達はこれまで,NHEのpH・容積センシングに関与する領域を同定し,活性調節機構の一部を明らかにしてきた。本講演では,1)NHEの増殖因子・Ca2+・ATP・リン酸化による活性調節,2)NHEによる細胞容積調節,さらには3)NHEの膜トポロジーとイオン認識,4)NHE結合タンパク質の生理機能といったいくつかの話題を通じて,NHEが細胞内シグナル伝達の形質膜上の最終ターゲットであり,かつ細胞の環境適応の担い手として大変興味深い分子であることを述べてみたい。

(担当:岡田泰伸)

  1. 神経発生での電位依存性チャネルの発現制御と役割
     岡村康司(通産省工業技術院生命工学工業技術研究所生体分子工学部,
     東京大学総合文化研究科大学院)

(2000.8.30)

 電位依存性チャネルは,神経分化の最終産物としての機能分子であると同時に,活動依存的な脳の発達を制御する因子である。当セミナーでは,これまでの海産無脊椎動物ほや胚を用いた解析を紹介し,複雑な高等脊椎動物の神経発生の理解への今後の展望について述べる。
 ほやは海産無脊椎動物であるが,その幼生は脊椎動物に相同な体制を示し,300個程度の細胞からなるシンプルな管状の中枢神経系を有する。初期神経分化が,特定の割球にて短時間でおこるため,ニューロンの分化に伴う膜興奮性の発達を詳細に解析できる。
 これまで,この動物が,脊椎動物と同様に細胞接着による神経誘導現象を示し,膜興奮性の発達における細胞間相互作用の役割を解析できる点に注目し,細胞間相互作用による各電位依存性チャネルの発現制御を,電気生理および,分子生物的手法を組み合わせて解析した。その結果,細胞接着の際に,各イオンチャネルが,異なる分子機構により制御されると結論された(Naチャネルは,主として神経細胞特異的な転写による制御,遅延整流性Kチャネルは,転写以後での制御,Caチャネルは細胞接着に依存しない転写プログラムと,maternal RNAによりコードされる別のアイソフォームによる発現抑制,内向整流性Kチャネルは,転写の抑制により制御されるなど)。
 また,この細胞間相互作用の効果は,bFGFの投与により再現され,神経分化の誘導での内在性bFGF様分子の関与が示唆された。
 現在,これらの知見を参考にしつつ,複雑な脊椎動物の脳の発生を解析することを目指している。ほやでは,神経と非神経との違いを解析することで,活動電位形成に関わる制御を解析したのに対し,脊椎動物ではニューロンネットワークで役割が明確な特定のニューロンに注目し,個性的な興奮性の発達機構を検討することができると期待している。
 また,ほや筋および神経分化の際,電位依存性Caチャネルはもっとも最初に出現し,自立的な興奮性に伴うCa流入を通して,発生後期の分化に調節的な役割を果たすと考えられる。このような活動依存的な分化は,高等脊椎動物においても,脳の発達に重要な要素と考えられる。電位依存性Caチャネルは,未熟なニューロンの電気的興奮性と細胞内変化をリンクする分子であるが,これまで実際の膜電位変動やCaシグナルの詳細には不明な点が多い。これには,今後個々のCaチャネル分子に基づいた解析が必要と考えられる。このためのいくつかの新しい方法論を紹介する。

(担当:伊佐 正)

  1. 膜発生の分子機構:Molecular Control of Vertebrate Retinal Develpment
     古川 貴久(The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center for Developmental Biology)

(2000.8.30)

 脊椎動物の中枢神経系は多様なニューロンおよびグリアから構成される。神経発生における細胞運命決定や形態形成のメカニズムの解明は,生物学的な興味だけでなく,ニューロンの再生を目指す上でも必須である。以前より,脊椎動物の網膜は中枢神経系の良いモデル系として知られてきた。しかし,その発生過程の細胞運命決定や形態形成の分子メカニズムの解明は進んでいなかった。最近我々は,網膜の発生分化の鍵を握るいくつかの分子をクローニングし,生体レベルでの機能を明らかにしてきた。今回のセミナーでは,網膜の発生の分子メカニズムの現状について報告する。

(担当:池中一裕)

  1. The competition for cortical space and the consequences for the reorganizational plasticity of the auditory and somatosensory cortex in musicians
     C. Pantev (Center of Biomagnetism, Institute of Experimental Audiology, University of Munster, Germany)

(2000.9.1)

 The lifelong ability to adapt to environmental needs is based on the capacity of the central nervous system for plastic altera- tions. In a series of neurophysiological experiments we studied the impact of music and musical training in musicians on the specific functional organization in auditory and somatosensory representational cortex. In one such study subjects listened to music from which one specific spectral frequency was removed. This led to rapid and reversible adaptation of neuronal responses in auditory cortex.Further experimental evidence demonstrated that long years of practice and training by professionalmusicians to achieve their aptitudes is associated with enlarged cortical representations in the somatosensory and auditory domains. This tuning of neuronal representations was specifically observed for musical tones and was absent when pure sinusoidal tones were used as stimuli. In the somatosensory cortex plastic changes proved to be specific for the fingers frequently used and stimulated. These changes were not detected in the fingers of the hand that were not involved in playing the particular instrument. Neuroplastic alterations also may be driven into a domain where they may become maladaptive. The clinical syndrome of focal hand dystonia that may occur in musicians who engage in forceful practice may be one such consequence. We will discuss the possibilities of reversing maladaptive responses leading to the successful treatment of focal hand dystonia, which relies on basic research about cortical reorganization. This example elucidates how neuroscientific progress can guide the devel- opment of practice guidelines and therapeutic measures for the benefit of professional musicians.
 Elbert T, Pantev C,et al (1995) Increased cortical represen- tation of the fingers of the left hand in string players. Science 270: 305-307
 Sterr A, Muller MM, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Pantev C, Taub E (1998) Perceptual correlates of changes in cortical representation of fingers in blind multifinger Braille readers. Nature 391: 134
 Pantev C, Oostenveld R, Engelien A, Ross B, Roberts LE, Hoke M (1998) Increased auditory cortical representation in musicians. Nature 392:811-814
 Sterr A, Muller M, Elbert T, Rockstroh B, Pantev C, Taub E (1998) Perceptual correlates of changes in cortical represen- tation of fingers in blind multifinger braille readers. J Neurosci 18: 4417-4423

(担当:柿木隆介)

  1. Temporal and spatial interactions across the movement map in the superior colliculus
     Robert H. Wurtz (National Institute of Health)

(2000.9.14)

 Spread across the intermediate layers of the monkey superior colliculus is a map that represents the vectors for the end point of an impending saccade. The experiments described used simultaneous recordings at two locations on this collicular map while the monkey selected between two targets related to these locations. The neuronal activity was particularly revealing during saccades that curved from one target to the other; the activity was related to the trajectory of the saccade, not just the end point. The change in saccade direction and the concomitant changes in the neuronal activity may parallel the monkeys decision to move to one target rather than the other. Further experiments use implanted wires for recording at over a dozen sites on the map and explore changes on the SC map following damage to it.

(担当:小松英彦)

  1. New insight in the molecular organization of glutamate synapses.
     Ole Peter Ottersen (Institute of basic medical sciences, University of Oslo, Norway)

(2000.9.21)

 I plan to speak about glutamate receptor immunolocalization and will include our new data on freeze fracture immunogold labelling. I also plan to discuss the synaptic handling of glutamate. In this context I will present some recent findings on the ex-pression of glutaminase in central and peripheralsynapses.

(担当:重本隆一)

  1. Cortical synaptic compartmentalisation as seen through the GABAergic innervation of hippocampal cells
     Peter Somogyi(Oxford Univeristy, UK)

(2000.9.26)
(担当:重本隆一)

  1. アクアポリン1における選択的水透過の分子機構
     村田 和義(生物学研究所,超微小形態生理研究部門)

(2000.10.19)

 ヒト赤血球膜にある水チャネルアクアポリン1の原子座標を電子線結晶解析により決定し,その水透過機構およびプロトン排除機構を推定することができた。そのチャネルポアの構造は膜の中心から両表面に向かって広がる漏斗構造をしており,2年前に明らかになったK+チャネルのポアとは全く正反対の形状となっていた。そしてポアが最も狭くなる膜の中心付近ではその直径が水分子のサイズに近い3オングストロームであった。ポアの内面は疎水性のアミノ酸残基によって占められており,これが水和したイオンや水分子よりも大きな分子を透過させない構造になっていると推定できた。また,アクアポリンの最大の謎である水透過の際のプロトンによる電荷移動を排除する機構については,このファミリーに保存された二つのNPAボックスが大きくこれに関与することがわかった。アクアポリンはグリセロールチャネルを含む非常に大きな膜透過蛋白質ファミリーを形成しており,この構造決定によってこのファミリーに属する他の蛋白質についてもそのメカニズムの解明に大きく貢献できるものと期待できる。
 文献:Murata, K. et al., Structural determinants of water permeation through aquaporin-1, Nature, in press (2000)

(担当:籾山俊彦)

  1. Improved immunohistochemical detection of glutamate receptor channels by protease pretreatment 
     深谷 昌弘(北海道大学大学院 医学研究科)

(2000.11.9)

 In most excitatory neurons, ionotropic glutamate receptors are concentrated on dendritic spines, and are associated with various molecules constituting the postsynaptic density(PSD). A number of studies have reported a somato-dendritic pattern of immunohistochemical staining for a variety of glutamate receptor subunits and their anchoring proteins. We have noticed, however, that appropriate section pretreatment with proteases, such as pepsin, has led to qualitative and quantitative changes in light-microscopic immunohistochemical detection of these molecules. Pepsin pretreatment lowers the concentration of primary antibodies, while it greatly increases the intensity of immunoreaction. Moreover, the intensified immunoreactivities are detected as numerous tiny puncta in the neuropil. The specificity is verified by spatial distribution consistent with the mRNA, and also by negative staining in the gene knockout brain. Based on these results, we conclude that antibody access and binding to ionotropic glutamate receptors and related PSD molecules are hindered by conventional immunohistochemistry, and that pepsin pretreatment effectively unmasks the postsynaptic epitopes.
 Using this improved immunohistochemistry, we found that a certain NR2 subunit is selectively excluded from the stratum lucidum of the hippocampal CA3, where the induction of LTP is independent of NMDA receptor activation. We have also found that dendritic transport of NR2 subunits is impaired without NR1 subunit, and vice versa. The latter finding suggests that interaction of NR1 and NR2 subunits is essential to normal dendritic transport and synaptic localization in the brain in vivo.

(担当:重本隆一)

  1. Saposin A is an essential component for normal metabolism of galactosylceramide:
    Analysis with gene targeting technology

     Kunihiko Suzuki (Neuroscience Center, University of North Carolina)

(2000.11.13)

    Sphingolipid activator protein (SAP, prosaposin) genegenerates four homologous proteins (saps, saposins) thatactivate in vivo degradation of sphingolipids with short carbohydrate chains. Each is relatively specific with respect to the sphingolipid it activates but some overlapping specificities are also indicated. Human patients with point mutations in the saposin B and C show phenotypes of metachromatic leuko- dystrophy and Gaucher disease, indicating that their primary in vivo substrates are sulfatide and glucosylceramide, respec- tively. In addition, two mutations are known in humans that result in complete inactivation of all four saposins and prosaposin. Total saposin deficiency is a devastating disease with involvement of multiple organs and multiple sphingolipids. We earlier generated a mouse model of total saposin deficiency with the gene targeting technology. The model closely mimics the human disease. Experimental evidence exists to indicate that saposin A may be an activator for galactosylceramidase and saposin D for ceramidase. Since no human diseases or animal models due to specific defects of saposin A or D are known, we decided to introduce mutations in these domains in order to obtain definitive answers regarding the in vivo functions of saposin A and D. To date, we have successfully generated mice with an amino acid substitution in the saposin A domain.
 The targeting vector was constructed using appropriate mis-matched primers to introduce a mutation in exon 4 that changed the 4th cysteine in saposin A to phenylalanine and simultaneously to introduce a new restriction enzyme recognition site for convenient genotyping. All saposins have six strictly conserved cysteines. In humans a mutation in the 4th cysteine to phenylalanine in saposin C causes specific saposin C deficiency and a mutation of the 5th cysteine to serine in saposin B causes specific saposin B deficiency. The critical feature of the targeting vector was the Cre/ loxP system. The neomycin resistance (neo) gene inserted within an intron was flanked by the loxP sequence. This design allowed initial selection of targeted ES cells with neomycin and subsequent removal of neo by transient transfection with a Cre expression plasmid. Targeted ES cells after removal of neo were injected into blastocysts and the standard proceduresfollowed to generate homozygous mice with the mutation.Clinically, homozygous mice appeared completely normal until about 45 days, at which time independent observers could identify them by their slight sluggishness but only with careful comparison with normal littermates. However, slowly progressive hind leg weakness became apparent by 2.5 months. As theweakness and atrophy of hind legs progressed, affected mice stopped gaining weight. Twitching, prominently seen in twitcher and other myelin mutants, was not obvious. Both males and females were fertile, and mothers were able to raise their offspring normally at least twice. At 50 days, there were occasional typical globoid cells in the brain and spinal cord, and evidence of myelin degeneration was evident in the PNS. Similar to twitcher mice, there is a prominent accumulation of galactosylceramide in the kidney and of the seminolipid precursor (1-alkyl,2-acyl,galactosylglycerol) in the testis. In the brain, galactosylceramideand monogalactosyldiglyceride may be slightly increased, but this must be confirmed by more quantitative studies. Brain psychosine level at 60 days was approximately three times normal in contrast to the 15-fold increase in twitcher brain. These findings not only confirm the earlier in vitro evidence by Ó Brien, Wenger, Harzer and others that saposin A may be agalactosylceramidase activator but also establish that it is infact essential for normal catabolism of galactosylceramide.However, the metabolic block due to saposin A deficiency appears less than complete because it causes a disease much milder than the complete inactivation of galactosylceramidasein the twitcher mouse. These findings may anticipate geneticsaposin A deficiency among human patients with undiagnosed late-onset chronic leukodystrophy with normal Galactosyl- ceramidase activity.

(担当:池中一裕)

  1. ウシ毛様体筋におけるムスカリン作動性陽イオンチャネルの同定とそのtrpチャネルとの関連性の検討
     高井 章 (名古屋大学 大学院医学研究科細胞科学講座 生理学教室)

(2000.12.25)

 毛様体筋は視覚遠近調節に関与する典型的な副交感神経支配の平滑筋組織である。われわれは,ウシ毛様体から単離した筋細胞において,ムスカリンM3受容体刺激に伴い開口する2種の非選択性陽イオンチャネルをパッチクランプ法により同定した。また,RT-PCRにより,この組織には,ムスカリン受容体刺激による活性化を受ける非選択性陽イオンチャネルを構成することで知られるtrp3とtrp6とが多く発現していることを明らかにした。

(担当:岡田 泰伸)

  1. Ca2+チャネルの分子・機能的多様性とその生物学的意義
     森 泰生(生理学研究所・液性情報部門)

(2001.1.18)

 形質膜越えのCa2+流入は多様な生体応答に必須である。 Ca2+流入経路を形成するCa2+チャネルは多様であり,制御する生体応答に対応するために進化上,機能・分子的に精緻な分化を遂げている。このCa2+チャネルの生理学的多様性を支配するより普遍的な規則を探究するために,Ca2+チャネルの分子実体及び機能的性質を明らかにし,形質膜上への分布制御機構の解明を携わってきた。まず,活動電位発生のみならず,活動電位をCa2+シグナルへ変換するという中心的役割を担っている電位依存性Ca2+チャネルに関して,P型 Ca2+チャネル遺伝子変異を原因とするrolling-Nagoya 等の行動異常マウスにおける変異が,どのようにして神経機能異常を引き起こすかの機構解明研究をおこなった。また,副サブユニットやGTP結合蛋白質等との相互作用機序を明らかにすることにより,Ca2+チャネルが生理的機能を発現する場の分子構築解明を行った。さらには,長い間,謎とされてきた,細胞生存と死或いは細胞増殖と分化を制御する,受容体活性化 Ca2+チャネルの分子的実体であるTRPタンパク質群を明らかにし,TRPが様々な細胞シグナルを統合しCa2+或いはカチオン流入に変換することを示した。

(担当:小幡 邦彦)

  1. 水チャネル(アクアポリン6)のイオン透過性
     挟間 章博(統合バイオサイエンスセンター)

(2001.1.24)

 アクアポリン6は,腎尿細管や腎糸球体足細胞に発現し,細胞内ベジクルに局在する水チャネルである。アクアポリン6をアフリカツメガエル卵母細胞に発現させると,形質膜へ移行するが,水透過性は低い。しかし,水チャネルの阻害剤として知られる水銀を投与すると,水透過性の上昇が観察され,さらに,膜電位固定法により,膜コンダクタンスの増大も認められた。水銀投与により上昇した水透過性,膜コンダクタンス共に,還元剤である2-mercaptoethanolを作用すると,元の状態へと回復した。また,水銀の結合部位と予想されるcysteineをalanineに置換したミュータントでは,水銀による水透過性,膜コンダクタンスの上昇は観察されなかった。水銀による膜コンダクタンス増大を担うイオン選択性については,細胞外液のNaCl濃度を減少させた時の逆転電位の変化から,陽イオン,陰イオン共にポアを透過するが陰イオンの方がやや選択性が高いことが明らかになった。これらの結果から,アクアポリン6は,水銀が結合することでポアが開口し,水とイオンを透過させるものと考えられた。

(担当:籾山俊彦)

  1. Concurrent processing of alternative target locations in the superior colliculus leads to short inter saccadic latencies and curved trajectories
     Edward L. Keller (Smith-Kettlewell Eye Research Institute, San Francisco, USA)

(2001.1.30)

 Changes in the position of ocular fixation in a laboratory environment in the monkey normally occur with inter saccade intervals of 150 ms or greater. It has been reported by a number of laboratories that when competing stimuli are presented, two sequentially executed movements to different goals can beseparated by much shorter intervals. We show with a simple visual search paradigm that monkeys routinely make saccades with inter saccade intervals less than 100 ms.
 Furthermore, the first saccade in this sequence is often curved toward the competing vector of the closely following movement. We recorded activity in the deeper layers of the SC that can explain these observed behavioral results. When the first saccade is made to a distractor followed shortly by a saccade to the target, we observed maintained activity during the first saccade at sites in the SC that would normal code the retinotopically organized vectorfor a saccade directly to the target. Curved saccades made directly to the target were associated with significant discharge just before saccade onset. We hypothesize that maintained activity at competing sites on the SC motor map allows parallel programming of subsequent saccades thus shortening inter saccadic intervals. Curved trajectories result from concurrent activity at competing sites on the map.

(担当:伊佐正)

  1. Spatiotemporal patterns of task-relevant neural activity in hippocampus
     Robert Hampson (Wake Forest University)

(2001.2.5)

 The mammalian hippocampus is a key structure required for the encoding of current experience as well as the retention of past experience. Studies have shown that hippocampal neurons alter their firing rates in response to both spatial and nonspatial behavioral tasks. For many of these tasks, removal of the hippocampus does not impair behavior, however, recent results have demonstrated a short-term memory task that is sensitive to partial or complete removal of the hippocampus or adjacent brain areas.
 Hippocampal neurons fire with specific patterns of activity during different trials of this Delayed-Nonmatch-to-Sample(DNMS) task. Analysis has shown that these neural responses encode information corresponding to spatial and nonspatial information within this task. Further, particular patterns of firing on error trials indicate that this encoding is critically related to the performance of such a short-term memory task.
 Hippocampal and subicular ensembles have been analyzed and identified as to the type and content of DNMS task-specific information encoded by each neuron. These Functional Cell Types (FCTs) reveal temporal and anatomical segregation of encoding throughout hippocampus and dorsal subiculum. The hippocampal FCTs encoded task Phase, response Position, and combinations of factors as Conjunctive or Trial-type cells. The hippocampal neurons corresponding to particular FCTs are distributed anatomically into distinct segments along the length of the hippocampus. Each longitudinal segment of hippocampus contains clusters of neurons that become active when the animal makes a response within a given spatial location (Position FCTs). Within these same segments are ordered arrangements of neurons that encode the strictly nonspatial aspects of the DNMS task (Phase FCTs) as well as FCTs appropriate to the coincidence of both spatial and nonspatial information (Conjunctive and Trial-type FCTs).
 Further studies reveal a functional temporal segregation of this same information across hippocampus and subiculum. Subicular neurons have been classified with respect to four Delay types and a Trial-type FCT. Combined with thehippocampus, these subicular neurons encode information throughout the temporal span of a given DNMS trial. Information theoretic analysis of which FCTs were critical for correct identification of behavioral events reveals that DNMS task-critical information is shifted from hippocampus, to dorsal subiculum, then back to hippocampus during a single trial. Such sequential activation may account for the“memory”for task events required for correct behavioral performance.
 This temporal and anatomic segregation of spatial information, together with the interleaved representation of nonspatial information, reveals a structural framework to the hippocampal formation that correlates to the information processed during a behavioral task. Although conflicting views exist regarding the role of hippocampus in representing spatial vs nonspatial memory, these results suggest that the hippocampus and surrounding brain areas process both types of information in a similar manner to form a composite mapping of position, time, and task-related events to facilitate the memory demands of the behavioral task.

(担当:伊佐正)

  1. Intracellular trafficking of AMPA receptors in synaptic plasticity
     Yu Tian Wang (Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology University of Toronto)

(2001.2.5)

 Dynamic modification of the efficacy of synaptic transmission between neurons in the brain is considered one of the essential mechanisms underlying the development of neural circuitry,learning and memory, and neuropathologies. In the last few decades, different forms of synaptic modification (plasticity) have been found throughout the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). The most extensively studied examples of such synaptic plasticity have been the long-term changes in synaptic efficacy observed at the glutamatergic synapses of the CA1 region of the hippocampus due to their potential roles in learning and memory.
 High frequency stimulation of the Schaffer-collateral- commissural pathway induces a long-term potentiation (LTP) while prolonged lower frequency stimulation of the same pathway causes a long-term depression (LTD) of synaptic transmission at these synapses.
 It is generally accepted that the induction of both LTP and LTD at the CA1 synapse is postsynaptic and dependent upon Ca2+ influx through activated NMDA subtype glutamatereceptors. However, the mechanisms underlying the expression of LTP and LTD remain hotly debated, and likely involve both a presynaptic component via alteration of transmitter release and a postsynaptic one through the modification of AMPA subtype glutamate receptors.
 Traditionally modifications of postsynaptic AMPA receptors have been thought to be achieved mainly by altering the channel gating properties or conductance of the receptors. However, recent studies from our laboratory and others have provided substantial evidence suggesting that AMPA receptors are continuously recycling between the plasma membrane and the intracellular compartments via vesicle-fusion mediatedplasma membrane insertion and clathrin-dependent endocytosis. Facilitating the vesicle- fusion dependent insertion of AMPAreceptors into postsynaptic membranes can lead to a rapid increase in the number of postsynaptic AMPA receptors and hence an enhanced synaptic transmission, and increased AMPA receptor insertion does indeed appear to contribute to the expression of homosynaptic hippocampal CA1 LTP. Conversely, upregulation of the clathrin-dependent endocytotic removal of postsynaptic AMPA receptors results in a lasting reduction in the receptor-mediated synaptic efficacy and plays a critical role in the expression of certain forms of LTD, including hippocampal CA1 homosynaptic LTD. These results have allowed us to formulate a simple and unified mechanism involving the rapid addition or removal of functional AMPA receptors to and from postsynaptic domains in the expression of both LTP/LTD. Thus, controlling the number of postsynaptic receptors by regulating their intracellular trafficking and plasma membrane expression may be a common and important mechanism underlying synaptic plasticity in the mammalian CNS.

(担当:伊佐正)

  1. The molecular basis for experimental autoimmune demyelination; implication for multiple sclerosis
     Claude C.A. Bernard (Neuroimmunology, La Trobe University)

(2001.2.6)

 Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS) which leads to selectivedestruction of myelin sheaths and/or oligodendrocytes.Clinically, different courses of the disease can be distinguished, suggesting that different pathogenic mechanisms may beoperating in the formation of MS lesions. Although the etiology and pathogenesis of MS remains largely unknown, it is generally assumed that immune responses to myelin antigens contribute to the disease process. The exact sequences of events, as well as the molecular mediators that lead to myelin destruction have yet to be defined. While considerableattention has been given to the T cell-mediated responses in MS, it should be emphasized that primary demyelination could also be mediated by autoantibodies. We have shown in Lewis rats that a single injection of myelin oligodendrocyteglycoprotein (MOG), a postulated target antigen in MS, produce a relapsing-remitting neurological disease with extensivedemyelination reminiscent of MS. In these animals, the antibody response was highly restricted to the immunizing antigen, as no reactivity to other MOG peptides or myelin proteins could be detected. In additional studies we investigated the encephalitogenicity of MOG in various strains of mice so as to further analyze the relative contributions of Th1 and Th2 cells in the disease process. An MS-like disease was induced in NOD/Lt mice and in C57BL/6 mice by either MOG,recombinant MOG or MOG35-55. The disease followed arelapsing-remitting course in the NOD/Lt mice, whereas C57BL/6 mice developed a chronic paralytic disease. Morphological features of lesions in our models resemble those observed in MS. Indeed, severe inflammation and demyelination coincide with the peak of clinical episodeswhile quiescent plaques characterize remissions. Furthermore, axonal damage is evident from the earliest stage of the disease and increases in severity with subsequent relapse. Significant DTH type reactions to MOG were only seen in MOG-susceptible animals. Such mice also showed specific antibody responses to MOG35-55 but not to a panel of other MOG peptides or to other CNS antigens. In the CNS of C57BL/6 mice, gene expression of both proinflammarory and immunoregulatory cytokines increased during the course of the disease, indicative of a mixed Th1/Th2 response to MOG. Evidence that proinflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γand TNF-αare not essential for the pathogenesis of the MOG-induced disease was obtained using mice with targeted disruption of these cytokines. These findings support the notion that a synergistic effect between a T cell-response and anti-MOG antibodies is important for the development of severe demyelination. Furthermore, they suggest that manipulation of the B cell arm of the immune response may represent a novel therapeutic approach for MS.

(担当:池中一裕)

  1. 霊長類における皮質脊髄路細胞興奮性出力の頚髄運動細胞への伝達経路と手指運動の巧緻度とのかかわり
     中陦 克己(生体システム研究部門)

(2001.2.20)

 皮質脊髄路は大脳皮質と脊髄を連絡する主要下行路である。霊長類において皮質脊髄路線維の一部は運動細胞に直接終止し cortico-motoneuronal (CM) connectionを形成する(直接経路)。このCM systemはマカクサルなどの旧世界サル,類人猿およびヒト等で特に発達しており,その発達度は上肢随意運動の制御において手指運動の巧緻度dexterityに反映されると考えられている。しかし皮質脊髄路線維終末は脊髄運動核以外の灰白質にも広く分布しており,このことは皮質脊髄路細胞からの運動司令が脊髄固有ニューロンや髄節性介在ニューロンを介して間接的にも頚髄運動細胞へ伝達されることを意味しており,間接経路の上肢運動制御における重要性を示唆する。間接経路の一例としては,ネコで第3〜第4頚髄レベルに存在する脊髄固有ニューロンC 3-C4 propriospinal neuronが皮質脊髄路細胞からの下行性出力を頚部運動細胞へ伝達することが知られている(PN system)。本研究では,手指運動の巧緻度と皮質脊髄路細胞興奮性出力の頚髄運動細胞への伝達経路とのかかわりを種差という観点から明らかにするために,マカクサルに比べて手指運動の巧緻度に劣りかつCM systemの発達度の低いリスザルにおいて,chloralose麻酔下で延髄対側の皮質脊髄路を刺激し,第6頚髄から第1胸髄レベルに位置する上肢筋支配運動細胞から細胞内記録を行った。さらに得られた結果をマカクサルにおいて同一条件下で行われた実験結果(Maier et al., 1998)と比較した。その結果,手指運動の巧緻度がより高くかつCM system のより発達した霊長類では,間接経路においてネコにみられるようなPN systemの発達度はより低く,髄節性介在ニューロンを介する経路がより優位であることが示唆された。

(担当:籾山俊彦)

  1. Development of Binocular Connections in the Primary Visual Cortex (V1) of Macaque Monkeys.
     Yuzo M. Chino(Univ. Houston, College of Optometry)

(2001.3.14)

 The binocular capacities of primates are severely limited near birth. Stereopsis, a highly sensitive measure of the functional status of binocular vision, is absent at birth, but suddenly emerges around 4-6 weeks of age in subhuman primates. Since many of the neural connections required for stereopsis and vergence control are known to be largely determined by prenatal processes and functionally emerge without extensive visual experience, this talk will explore the neural factors that may constrain the emergence of stereopsis shortly after birth in normal monkeys.

(担当:小松英彦)

  1. 腸間膜微小動脈平滑筋細胞にdominantに存在するnifedipine非感受性,急速不活性化型,高電位活性化型Ca2+チャネルの電気生理学的特性
     森田 浩光(九州大学大学院医学研究院生体情報薬理)

(2001.3.16)

 我々は,モルモット腸間膜動脈最終分岐部及びそれより末梢の平滑筋細胞に,パッチクランプ法を適用して,これまでにないユニークな生物物理学的,薬理学的特性を示す,nifedipine非感受性,急速不活性化型,電位依存性Ca2+チャネル(電流)が存在していることを発見した。全Ca2+電流に対する nifedipine非感受性Ca2+電流の割合は,腸間膜動脈の中枢部から末梢分枝部へ向け劇的に増加し,その最末梢分岐部では殆ど100%を占めていた。この Ca2+電流は,電荷担体として5 mmol/L Ba2+を用いた条件下で,-50 mV付近から活性化され-10 mV付近で最大活性化を示し,その50%活性化値および不活性化値はそれぞれ-11 mV及び-52 mVであった。また,その活性化曲線と不活性化曲線の重なる範囲が  -60〜-30 mVにあることから,静止膜電位付近で恒常的に活性化されている可能性が示唆された。
 nifedipine非感受性Ca2+電流はrundownしにくく,Ca2+依存性不活性化を示さなかった。またCa2+よりBa2+に対し約2倍高い透過性を示し,Ni2+よりCd2+によってより強い阻害を受ける(50%阻害値(IC50), Cd2+で6 μmol/L,Ni2+で68 μmol/L)など,高電位活性化型の電位依存性Ca2+チャネルに特徴的な性質を示した。
 更にN型,及びP/Q型Ca2+チャネルの選択的阻害薬であるω-conotoxin GVIA,MVIIC及びω-agatoxin IVA(各々1μmol/L)に対して感受性を示さず,一方 nimodipine(10μmol/Lで約40%)及びT型Ca2+チャネルの一般的な阻害薬である amiloride(1 mmol/Lで約70%,IC50; 107μmol/L)では部分的阻害を受けた。これらの特徴はR型Ca2+チャネルを想起させるものであったが,RT-PCR法によってモルモット腸間膜動脈からα1E のmRNAを検出することはできなかった。以上の結果から,全く新しい特徴を有するnifedipine非感受性高電位活性化型 Ca2+チャネルが腸間膜動脈の末梢分岐部に優勢に発現しており,その血管緊張度の制御に深く関わっていることが強く示唆された。

(担当:井本敬二)

  1. Glial boundaries in Xenopus central nervous system
     吉田美加(東北大学医学部分子生物学講座)

(2001.3.16)

 Because a subpopulation of glial cells seems to establish boundary regions such as the roof plate of the spinal cord, the optic chiasm, and the anterior commissure, it is most likely that distinct subsets of glial cells play roles to generate the specific cellular domains in the hindbrain as well. Glial intermediate filament proteins, vimentin and glial fibrillary acidic protein, are extensively coexpressed in radial glia in the developing Xenopus hindbrain and that subsequently two proteins define distinct rhombomere domains: vimentin is localized in radial glia at the rhombomere boundaries and glial fibrillary acidic protein expression is restricted in those at the rhombomere center. Radial glia in the boundary regions selectively retain expression of a four transmembrane surface protein, DMg/M6b. This protein is very closely related to a neuronal protein expressed on migrating axons, DMb/ M6a, and is a gene product of the proteolipid protein gene family. The localized expression of DMg/M6b on boundary region radial glia may play a role in boundary definition and in guidance of axonal emigration from the hindbrain. Moreover, the cellular arrangement in the boundary regions differs from that in the center regions; the boundary glia exhibit processes which extend upward and are encircled by the cell processes emanating from the central glia. These data suggest that an early event in determining rhombomere topology may be the specification of both morphologically and biochemically distinct subsets of radial glia.

(担当:池中一裕)

  1. Transgenic approaches to understanding oligodendrocyte survival and differentiation
     Wendy B Macklin (Cleveland Clinic)

(2001.3.19)

 The long range goal of these studies is understanding the molecular signals that regulate oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelin formation. The focus is on the expression of the myelin proteolipid protein (PLP)gene, which is primarily expressed in myelinating oligodendrocytes. The PLP protein and the closely related DM20 protein are the most abundant proteins of the CNS myelin membrane. Animals were generated using a PLP promoter-green fluorescent protein (GFP) transgene. These animals express an early version of GFP, which is not as strong as some of the more recent iterations of this transgene. This has been quite useful in that the transgene is detectable only in mature oligodendrocytes. Mature oligodendrocytes can be FACS sorted, which has not been possible before, in order to analyze gene expression in isolated, in vivo differentiated oligodendrocytes. These animals are an excellent model for adult pathologies of oligodendrocyte function. Cultures from theseanimals are particularly useful for establishing how to enhanceremyelination by mature oligodendrocytes. Additional transgenicanimals have been generated that express enhanced GFP (EGFP) in oligodendrocytes and their progenitors at very high levels. All stages of oligodendrocyte differentiation are visualized in thesemice, postnatally and in the embryo. Investigations on this lineage will be discussed. In other studies on oligodendrocytedifferentiation, the mechanisms by which neuregulins enhancesurvival of oligodendrocytes and their progenitors are being analyzed, with a particular focus on the role of AKT in this survival pathway.

(担当:池中一裕)

  1. Quantal synaptic transmission in CNS
     Nobutoshi HARATA (Stanford University School of Medicine)

(2001.3.27)

 At central synapses, quantal release of neurotransmitter is generally regarded as an all-or-none process, whereby presynaptic changes in synaptic strength arise only from altered release probability, not from changes in the cleftneurotransmitter concentration generated by unitary exocytotic events. We looked for changes in cleft glutamate concentration ([glu]cleft) sensed by AMPA-type glutamate receptors at hippocampal synapses in response to varying external Ca2+ or to paired- pulse modulation. Analysis of the effects of a rapidly equilibrating AMPAR antagonist (gamma-DGG) was carried out for populations of excitatory synapses in autaptic microcultures or at single FM1-43- labeled boutons subjected to focal stimulation. In all cases, [glu] cleft was significantly modified in parallel with changes in release probability, whether elicited by manipulating Ca2+, by paired-pulse facilitation (PPF), or paired-pulse depression (PPD). Modulation of unitary event size was also directly observed in the absence of antagonist. At single synapses displaying PPD, quantal responses evoked by the second stimulation were significantly smaller than quantal responses to the first stimulus, even in trials when the first response was a failure. These results suggest that unitary release event at hippocampal synapses is subject to extensive modulation.
 One of the possible mechanisms is by way of modulation of exocytosis kinetics. Neuroendocrine cells undergo a transient form of exocytosis by way of fusion pore formation. If thistransient form exists also in mammalian central synapses, the temporal range of exo-endocytosis would be expanded considerably than currently thought, and would be a potential site of modulation. We have developed a new approach to test whether transient fusion pores are formed during exocytosis at hippocampal synapses. We monitored the fluorescence of green fluorescent protein (GFP), fused to the lumenal domain of the vesicle protein VAMP (synaptobrevin-2), as it was quenched by bromphenol blue (BPB), present in the extracellular solution. Only when the extracellular solution gained access to the vesicle lumen, was BPB allowed to enter the vesicle and quench GFP fluorescence. The rate of quenching was significantly faster in the presence of 2 mM BPB than in 0.5 mM BPB. Because 0.5 and 2 mM BPB were shown to attain similar submaximal quenching under a steady-state condition, these data suggest that some vesicular population was only partially filled with 0.5 mM BPB during exocytosis. Based on simple diffusion model, BPB filling time was calculated to be 4.1 msec for 0.5 mM (extracellular) BPB, whereas it was 0.4 msec for 2 mM BPB, strongly indicating a transient opening of fusion pore in the millisecond time domain. These results point to a possible presynaptic modulatory mechanism of quantal synaptic transmission in CNS.

(担当:井本敬二)

  1. Polarized trafficking, clustering and modulation of dendritic delayed rectifier Kv2 channels
     James S. Trimmer (Department of Biochemistry and Cell Biology State University of New York)

(2001.3.28)
(担当:池中一裕)


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